Sand Culture. Concurrent with the beginning of rockwool culture in Denmark in 1969, a type of open-system aggregate hydroponics, initially for desert applications and using pure sand as the growing medium, was under development by researchers at the University of Arizona (Jensen 1973). It was logical to investigate such potential. Because other types of growing media must be imported to desert regions and may require frequent renewal, they are more expensive than sand, a commodity usually available in abundance (Jensen & Malter, 1995).
The Arizona researchers designed and tested several types of sand-based hydroponic systems. The growth of tomatoes and other greenhouse crops in pure sand was compared with the growth in nine other mixtures (e.g. sand mixed in varying ratios with vermiculite, rice hulls, redwood bark, pine bark, perlite, peat moss, etc.). There were no significant differences in yield (Jensen and Collins 1985). Unlike many other growing media, which undergo physical breakdown during use, sand is a permanent medium. It does not require replacement every 1 or 2 years (Jensen & Malter, 1995).
Pure sand can be used in trough or trench culture. However, in desert locations, it is often more convenient and less expensive to cover the greenhouse floor with polyethylene film and a system of drainage pipes (PVC pipe 5 cm in diameter, cross cut one third through every 45 cm down the length of the pipe with cuts faced down) and then to backfill the area with sand to a depth of approximately 30 cm. If the sand bed is shallower, moisture conditions may not be uniform and plant roots may grow into the drain pipes. The areas to be used as planting beds may be level or slightly sloped. Supply manifolds for nutrient solution must be sited accordingly (Jensen & Malter, 1995).
Different types of desert and coastal sands with various physical and chemical properties were used successfully by the University of Arizona workers. The size distribution of sand particles is not critical, with the exception of very fine materials, such as mortar sand, which does not drain well and should be avoided. If calcareous sand is used, it is important to maintain a nutrient solution of neutral pH. Increased amounts of chelated iron must be applied to the plants. Sand growing beds should be fumigated annually because of possible introduction of soil borne diseases and nematodes (Jensen & Malter, 1995).
Irrigation practices are particularly critical during the high-radiation summer months, when irrigation may be necessary up to eight times per day. Proper irrigation is indicated by a small but continuous drainage, 4–7 percent of the application, from the entire growing area. Evaporation of water around small summer tomato transplants is often high, which can lead to a slight buildup of fertilizers in the planting beds. Extra nitrogen causes excessive vegetative growth, thus decreasing the number of fruits. This can be avoided by reducing the amount of nitrogen in the solution from the time of transplant until the appearance of the first blossoms. Drainage from the beds should be tested frequently, and the beds leached when drainage salts exceed 3000 ppm (Jensen & Malter, 1995).
The principle crops grown in sand culture systems are tomatoes and cucumbers, and yields of both crops have been high. Seedless cucumber production has exceed 700 MT/ha (Jensen & Malter, 1995).
Greenhouse pepper plants grow in pure sand in a facility designed by the University of Arizona on Kharg Island, Iran. Plants are drip irrigated with nutrient solution.
Greenhouse eggplants are grown on beach sand along the Gulf of California in a cooperative research project of the University of Arizona and the University of Sonora, Hermosillo. Sonora, Mexico.
Source; Jensen, Merle H.; Malter, Alan J. Protected agriculture : a global review (English). World Bank technical paper ; no. WTP 253 Washington, D.C. : The World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/170171468765017779
1920* — E. S. Johnston — “Nutrient Requirement of the Potato Plant Grown in Sand Cultures Treated with ‘Type I’ Solutions.”
1924* — E. S. Johnston — “Growth of Potato Plants in Sand Cultures Treated with the ‘Six Types’ of Nutrient Solutions.” Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 270.
1925* — E. S. Johnston — “Comparative Study of the ‘Six Types’ of Nutrient Solutions in Relation to the Growth of Potato Plants in Sand Cultures.” Soil Science 20.
1928* — F. G. Gregory — “The Differential Effect of the Ions of Three-Salt Solutions on the Growth of Potato Plants in Sand Culture.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 102:311–327.
1934 — O. W. Davidson & J. W. Shive — “The Influence of the Hydrogen-Ion Concentration of the Culture Solution upon the Absorption and Assimilation of Nitrate and Ammonium Nitrogen by Peach Trees Grown in Sand Cultures.” Soil Science 37:357–382.
1937* — J. W. Shive & W. R. Robbins — “Methods of Growing Plants in Solution and Sand Cultures.” New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin.
1938 — A. A. Dunlap — “Growth of Cabbage Seedlings in Sand Culture, as Affected by Delayed Application of Nutrient Salts.” Plant Physiology 13:631–640.
1939 — R. M. Woodman — “Studies in the Nutrition of Vegetables: The Effects of Variation in the Nitrogen Supply on Lettuce … in Sand Culture.” Annals of Botany 3:649–656.
1939 — R. M. Woodman — “Studies in the Nutrition of Vegetables: Phosphate Deficiency and Yield Tests on Sand Cultures of May King Lettuce.” Journal of Agricultural Science 29:229–248.
1940* — V. G. Heller, R. H. Hageman & E. L. Hartman — “Sand Culture Studies of the Use of Saline and Alkaline Waters in Greenhouses.” Plant Physiology 15:727–733.
1943* — Hugh G. Gauch & Cecil H. Wadleigh — “A New Type of Intermittently-Irrigated Sand Culture Equipment.” Plant Physiology 18:543–547.
1943* — Moyer D. Thomas, Russel H. Hendricks, James O. Ivie & George R. Hill — “An Installation of Large Sand-Culture Beds Surmounted by Individual Air-Conditioned Greenhouses.” Plant Physiology 18:334–344.
1944 — F. Hicks & M. A. H. Tincker — “A Simple Method of Growing Carnations and Other Plants in Sand.” Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society 69:112–113.
1946* — W. G. Templeman — “The Automatic Surface Application of Nutrient Solution for the Sand Culture of Plants.” Chemistry & Industry. Includes intermittent/surface irrigation work with tomato.
1950 — S. Pattanaik — “A Simple Sand Culture Equipment for Growing Rice Plants.” Current Science 19:321–322.
1960* — T. Osawa — “Studies on the Salt Tolerance of Vegetable Crops in Sand Culture. I. On Fruit Vegetables.” Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science 29:294–304.
1961* — T. Osawa — “Studies on the Salt Tolerance of Vegetable Crops in Sand Culture. III. On Root Vegetables.” Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science 30:161–166.
1961 — T. Osawa — “Studies on the Salt Tolerance of Vegetable Crops in Sand Culture. IV.” Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science 30:241–252.
1962 — T. Osawa — “Studies on the Sodium Chloride Injury of Vegetable Crops in Relation to the Form of Nitrogen in Sand Culture. I. On Some Fruit Vegetables.”
1962 — T. Osawa — “…II. On Some Leaf Vegetables and Root Vegetables.”
1963* — T. Osawa — “Studies on the Salt Tolerance of Vegetable Crops with Special Reference to Osmotic Effects and Specific Ion Effects.” Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science 32:211–223.
1963 — J. C. Cain — “Automatic Sub-Irrigation Equipment for Sand Culture.” Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science 82:631–636.
1963 — H. S. Swan & D. Stewart — “An Automatic Sub-Irrigation Sand Culture Apparatus.” Forest Science 9:63–67.
1966* — B. C. Hanger — “A Continuous Irrigation System for Use in Sand Culture Experiments.” Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 6:331–333. Tomatoes were grown for months in washed river sand with recirculating nutrient solution.
1967 — W. J. Lovett et al. — “An Automatic Irrigation Sand Culture Technique.”
1969* — R. K. Osborn & B. C. Hanger — “A Simple Automatic Irrigation System for Growing Plants in Sand Culture.” Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 9:367–368.
1970 — D. N. Maynard, A. V. Barker & H. F. Vernell — “A Semi-Automatic Sand Culture System for Greenhouse Plant Nutrition Research.” Agronomy Journal 62:304–306.
1970* — G. Jager, J. van der Boon & G. J. G. Rauw — sand-culture experiments with trickle irrigation. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 18:158–167.
1970 — Merle H. Jensen & C. N. Hodges — “Plastics and Their Use in Vegetable Production in Desert Regions of the World.” Proceedings of the National Agricultural Plastics Conference. Relevant background to Jensen’s desert sand-culture programme.
1971* — Merle H. Jensen & M. A. Teran — “Use of Controlled Environment for Vegetable Production in Desert Regions of the World.” HortScience 6:33–36. Agecon Search
1971 — Merle H. Jensen — “The Use of Polyethylene Barriers Between Soil and Growing Medium in Greenhouse Vegetable Production.” Proceedings of the 10th National Agricultural Plastics Conference, pp. 144–149. Wiley Online Library
1971* — M. R. Fontes, J. O’Toole & Merle H. Jensen — “Vegetable Production under Plastic on the Desert Seacoast of Abu Dhabi.” Proceedings of the 10th National Agricultural Plastics Conference.
1972* — Merle H. Jensen & Hamdy M. Eisa — Controlled-Environment Vegetable Production: Results of Trials at Puerto Peñasco, Mexico, 1968–1970. Environmental Research Laboratory, University of Arizona, 118 pp. Agecon Search
1972 — E. B. Dumbroff & A. W. Cooper — “A Simplified Technique for Automatic Surface Irrigation of Plants in Sand Cultures.” Canadian Journal of Botany 50:383–385.
1973* — Merle H. Jensen & N. G. Hicks — “Exciting Future for Sand Culture.” American Vegetable Grower 21(11):33–34, 72–74. AnyFlip
1973 — Merle H. Jensen, Hamdy M. Eisa & M. Fontes — “The Pride of Abu Dhabi.” American Vegetable Grower 21(11):35, 68, 70. AnyFlip
1973* — M. R. Fontes — “Controlled-Environment Horticulture in the Arabian Desert at Abu Dhabi.” HortScience 8:13–16.
1973* — Masao Toyama — “Fundamental Research on the Suna Saibai (a Type of Sand Culture). I. Relationship between the Physical Composition of the Sand and its Total Porosity as well as Water Holding Capacity.” Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science 42:241–250.
1973* — Masao Toyama — “…II. Relationship between the Physical Composition of the Sand and its Evaporation.” Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science 42:251–258.
1973 — A. V. Delap & J. W. R. Aylott — “Automatic Sub-Irrigation Equipment for Sand Culture Experiments on Fruit Trees.” Horticultural Research 13:17–24.
1974* — Masao Toyama — “…III. Nitrification in the Sand.” Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science 42:317–325. A particularly important historical paper because it directly demonstrates biological nitrogen transformations in sand.
1974* — Masao Toyama — “…IV. Relationship between the Physical Composition of Sand Media and the Growth Response of Cucumber Seedlings.” Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science 43:229–236.
1974 — Masao Toyama — work on sand physical composition and water content of cucumber leaves, continuing the same Suna Saibai research series.
1974 — C. S. Andrew — “Automatic Sub-Irrigation Sand Culture Technique for Comparative Studies in Plant Nutrition.” Laboratory Practice 23:20–21.
1974 — A. R. Mazur & T. D. Hughes — “Simple Method for Growth of Small Plants in Nutrient-Sand Culture.” Agronomy Journal 66:825–826.
1975* — Masao Toyama — “…V. Effects of Physical Composition of Sand Media, Air Temperature, and Irrigation on Growth Response of Cucumber Seedlings.” Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science 44:131–137.
1975* — Hamdy M. Eisa & Merle H. Jensen — “The Use of Calcareous Sand in Abu Dhabi as a Growing Medium in the Sand Culture System.” Acta Horticulturae 51. This is one of the most directly relevant Jensen publications. NCERA-101
1975 — Merle H. Jensen — “Arizona Research in Controlled Environment Agriculture.” Proceedings of the Tennessee Valley Greenhouse Vegetable Workshop, pp. 13–82. Wiley Online Library
1978* — P. C. Brookes — “Control of Evaporation and Surface-Accumulation of Nutrients in Sand-Culture Experiments with Oak Seedlings.” Journal of Applied Ecology 15:635–637.
1979* — B. A. Notton, E. F. Watson & E. J. Hewitt — “Effects of N-Serve Formulations on Nitrification and on Loss of Nitrate in Sand Culture Experiments.” Plant and Soil 51.
1980* — J. C. Ojala & W. M. Jarrell — “Hydroponic Sand Culture Systems for Mycorrhizal Research.” Plant and Soil 57:297–303.
1980* — Merle H. Jensen — “The Sand Culture System in Controlled Environment Agriculture.” Proceedings of the International Symposium on Controlled Environment Agriculture, University of Arizona. This publication is independently cited in subsequent soilless-culture literature. ResearchSpace
1982* — A. Luque — “Retention of Ions by Volcanit Sand Used in Hydroponic Cultures.” Acta Horticulturae 126. Particularly relevant because it examines ion retention/release and nitrification in sand used for hydroponic cropping.
1983* — G. S. Smith, C. M. Johnston & I. S. Cornforth — “Comparison of Nutrient Solutions for Growth of Plants in Sand Culture.” New Phytologist 94:537–548.
1984* — Shigeho Yonemori — “A Modified Sand Culture of Tomatoes Using Coral Sands in Okinawa.” Long-term tomato production in highly calcareous local sand.
1985* — Merle H. Jensen & W. L. Collins — “Hydroponic Vegetable Production.” Horticultural Reviews 7. Major review covering aggregate and sand culture and preserving the bibliography of Jensen’s earlier sand work. Wiley Online Library
1987* — M. R. McMurtry, P. V. Nelson & D. C. Sanders — “Mineral Content and Yield of Bush Bean, Cucumber, and Tomato Cultivated in Sand and Irrigated with Recirculating Aquaculture Water.” HortScience 22(5, section 2):1138 / North Carolina Agricultural Research Service No. 11019. iAVs
1988 — D. C. Sanders & M. R. McMurtry — “Fish Increase Greenhouse Profits.” American Vegetable Grower. Contemporary description of the NCSU sand-bed system.
1988* — D. O. Huett & E. B. Dettmann — “Effect of Nitrogen on Growth, Fruit Quality and Nutrient Uptake of Tomatoes Grown in Sand Culture.” Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 28:391–400.
1989* — A. Ibrahim, A. El-Gindy, A. Abou Hadid & A. Abdel Ghafar — “Recirculated Sand Culture for Tomato Under Protected Cultivation.” Egyptian Journal of Horticulture 16:181–198.
1990* — M. R. McMurtry, P. V. Nelson, D. C. Sanders & L. Hodges — “Sand Culture of Vegetables Using Recirculated Aquacultural Effluents.” Applied Agricultural Research 5(4):280–284. Bush bean, cucumber and tomato were grown in deep sand beds with intermittent surface irrigation and complete water recirculation. iAVs
1990* — M. R. McMurtry & D. C. Sanders — “Performance of an Integrated Aquaculture-Olericulture System as Influenced by Component Ratio.” HortScience 25(9):1151. Tomato and cucumber were grown in sand biofilters irrigated eight times daily. DOI 10.21273/HORTSCI.25.9.1151f. ResearchGate
1990* — M. R. McMurtry, D. C. Sanders, P. V. Nelson & R. G. Hodson — “Nutrient Dynamics in an Integrated Recirculatory Aquaculture-Vegetable Production System.” Proceedings of the XXIII International Horticultural Congress, Florence. iAVs
1990 — J. Lynch, E. Epstein, A. Läuchli & G. I. Weight — “An Automated Greenhouse Sand Culture System Suitable for Studies of P Nutrition.” Plant, Cell & Environment 13:547–554.
1992* — D. O. Huett & E. White — “Determination of Critical Nitrogen Concentrations of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Sebago) Grown in Sand Culture.” Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 32:765–772.
1993* — M. R. McMurtry, D. C. Sanders, P. V. Nelson & A. Nash — “Mineral Nutrient Concentration and Uptake by Tomato Irrigated with Recirculating Aquaculture Water as Influenced by Quantity of Fish Waste Products Supplied.” Journal of Plant Nutrition 16:407–419. iAVs
1993* — M. R. McMurtry, D. C. Sanders, R. P. Patterson & A. Nash — “Yield of Tomato Irrigated with Recirculating Aquacultural Water.” Journal of Production Agriculture 6:428–432. iAVs
1993 — H. Z. Zaiter & B. Mahfouz — “Salinity Effect on Root and Shoot Characteristics of Common and Tepary Beans Evaluated under Hydroponic Solution and Sand Culture.” Journal of Plant Nutrition 16:1569–1592.
1994 — I. A. Ali, U. Kafkafi, Y. Sugimoto & S. Inanaga — “Response of Sand-Grown Tomato Supplied with Varying Ratios of Nitrate/Ammonium to Constant and Variable Root Temperatures.” Journal of Plant Nutrition 17:2001–2024.
1994 — L. Mancini & G. Scarascia Mugnozza — “Yield and Quality of Chinese Cabbage Grown on Sand Culture and NFT System.” Acta Horticulturae 361:578–582.
1994 — F. Moulin, P. Lemanceau & C. Alabouvette — “Pathogenicity of Pythium Species on Cucumber in Peat-Sand, Rockwool and Hydroponics.” Relevant supporting evidence on disease ecology in sand-containing soilless media.
1997* — J. Muro, V. Díaz, J. L. Goñi & C. Lamsfus — “Comparison of Hydroponic Culture and Culture in a Peat/Sand Mixture and the Influence of Nutrient Solution and Plant Density on Seed Potato Yields.” Potato Research 40:431–438. Not pure sand, but directly relevant to potato tuber production in soilless sand-containing media.
1997* — M. R. McMurtry, R. G. Hodson, D. C. Sanders & J. D. Cure — “Effects of Biofilter/Culture Tank Volume Ratios on Productivity of a Recirculating Fish/Vegetable Co-Culture System.” Journal of Applied Aquaculture 7(4):33–51. iAVs
1997* — M. R. McMurtry, D. C. Sanders, J. D. Cure, R. G. Hodson, B. C. Haning & P. C. St. Amand — “Efficiency of Water Use of an Integrated Fish/Vegetable Co-Culture System.” Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 28:420–428. Wiley Online Library
2003* — M. G. Ahmed et al. — “Evaluation of Nutrient Film Technique and Sand Culture for Year-Round Production of Tomato … in Tropical Asia.” Asian Journal of Plant Sciences 2:420–424.
2012* — B. Darvishi et al. — “Possibility of Replacing Current Commercial Potato Mini-Tuber Production System by Hydroponic Sand Culture.” Directly relevant commercial potato/sand-culture research.
2015* — B. Darvishi et al. — “The Effect of Plantlets Density and Growth Media Composition on Potato Mini-Tuber Production in Hydroponic Sand Culture.” Compared sand media including different particle-size compositions.
2015* — B. Darvishi et al. — “Effect of Nutritional Treatments on Physiological Characteristics and Tuberization of Potato Plants under Hydroponic Sand Culture.” Journal of Plant Nutrition 38:2096–2111.
2015* — M. Baba & N. Ikeguchi — “Industrial Cultivation Using the Latest Sandponics System.” SEI Technical Review 80:104–108. Documents the Japanese commercial sand-culture lineage originating in the 1970s.
2016* — Falah Hasan Issa — “Propagation of Potato Seed Tubers Using Nutrient Solution in Hydroponic and Sand Culture.” International Journal of Multidisciplinary and Current Research 4:1104–1106.
2016* — J. Lipiec, A. Siczek, A. Sochan & A. Bieganowski — “Effect of Sand Grain Shape on Root and Shoot Growth of Wheat Seedlings.” Geoderma 265:1–5. Particularly relevant to claims about angular versus rounded sand particles.
2017* — S. Kanazawa et al. — “High Quality Agricultural Production Support System by Smart Sand Cultivation Device ‘New Sandponics’.” SEI Technical Review.
2017* — F. X. Prenafeta-Boldú, I. Trillas, F. Viñas et al. — “Effectiveness of a Full-Scale Horizontal Slow Sand Filter for Controlling Phytopathogens in Recirculating Hydroponics: From Microbial Isolation to Full Microbiome Assessment.” Science of the Total Environment 599–600:780–788. Not a crop-medium experiment itself, but highly relevant evidence that working sand beds support complex, active microbial communities.
2018* — P. Makokha et al. — “Optimization of Nutrient Media for Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas L.) Vine Multiplication in Sandponics.” Gates Open Research 2:59.
2018 — H. Misu, M. Mori, S. Okumura, S. Kanazawa, N. Ikeguchi & R. Nakai — “High-Quality Tomato Seedling Production System Using Artificial Light.” SEI Technical Review 86:119–124. Part of the Japanese New Sandponics programme.
2019/2020* — P. Makokha et al. — “Comparative Analysis for Producing Sweetpotato Pre-Basic Seed Using Sandponics and Conventional Systems.” Journal of Crop Improvement 34:84–102.
2020* — B. W. Wanjala et al. — “Improving Rapid Multiplication of Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas L.) Pre-Basic Seed Using Sandponics Technology in East Africa.” Experimental Agriculture 56:347–354.
2020* — J. K. Ayusa, J. B. Mukundi & A. O. Adimo — “Comparative Growth and Dry Matter Accumulation in Selected Tree Species in Response to Quarry Dust Media Amendments.” Journal of Horticulture and Forestry 12:122–129. Relevant specifically to the agricultural use of mechanically crushed quarry material.
2020 — M. S. Abu-Shahba, M. M. Mansour, H. I. Mohamed & M. R. Sofy — “Comparative Cultivation and Biochemical Analysis of Iceberg Lettuce Grown in Sand Soil and Hydroponics With or Without Microbubbles and Macrobubbles.” Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition.
2022* — H. Sewilam, F. Kimera, P. Nasr & M. Dawood — “A Sandponics Comparative Study Investigating Different Sand Media Based Integrated Aqua Vegeculture Systems Using Desalinated Water.” Scientific Reports 12:11093.
2023* — F. Kimera, M. Mugwanya, M. Dawood & H. Sewilam — “Growth Response of Kale and Nile Tilapia under Saline Aqua-Sandponics-Vegeculture System.” Scientific Reports 13:2427.
2024* — W. Jiang, J. Liu, Z. Gong, Y. Gao, Z. Li & Z. Tan — “Slightly Saline Water Improved Physiology, Growth, and Yield of Tomato Plants in Yellow Sand Substrate.” Agronomy 14:2315.
2024* — C. S. Nair et al. — “Sandponics: A Sustainable Agriculture Solution for Food Security and Resource Efficiency in Arid Regions.” Journal of Sustainable Agriculture and Environment 3:e70033. Important as a modern review assembling part of the historical sand-culture literature.
2024 — Salman & Abd-Alwahab — “Exploring the Physiological Traits of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) Cultivated in a Sandponics Growing System.” Journal of Global Innovations in Agricultural Sciences 12:522–528.
2025* — W. Jiang et al. — “Optimal Irrigation Water Salinity Enhances Tomato Yield in Sand Culture by Regulating Substrate Salinity.” Agricultural Water Management 317:109632.
2025* — R. Subramanian et al. — “Integrating Desert Sand Utilization in Saltwater Aqua-Vegeculture Production: Performance Evaluation of Yield and Biochemical Composition.” Animals 15:1246.